⚖️ Air Law
The rules that hold international flying together — from the treaty that created them to the light at the end of the runway. Each chapter opens with the one idea to hold on to, then the numbers, the comparisons that cause most mistakes, and worked examples you can open.
🧰 Quick tools & cheat sheet play with the numbers
Four small helpers for the look-ups air law asks for again and again, and a one-screen list of the numbers worth knowing by heart.
🛬 Runway designator
📐 Aerodrome reference code
🌀 Mach number technique
🧭 Semicircular cruising level
📋 Cheat sheet — numbers worth knowing
| Idea | Number / rule |
|---|---|
| 🌍 Annexes to the Convention | 19 · Council 36 members |
| 🚨 SSR emergency codes | 7500 hijack · 7600 radio · 7700 emergency |
| ⏳ Emergency phases | INCERFA 30 min · ALERFA 5 min after landing clearance |
| ☁️ VMC in class C–E (at/above FL100) | 8 km · 1500 m horizontal · 1000 ft vertical |
| ☁️ VMC in class C–E (below FL100) | 5 km · 1500 m horizontal · 1000 ft vertical |
| 🛫 Special VFR (in a CTR) | ground visibility ≥ 1500 m |
| 📏 Vertical separation | 1000 ft · 2000 ft above FL410 in RVSM |
| 📡 Radar separation | 5 NM · 3 NM · 2.5 NM on final |
| 🌪️ Wake categories (MTOM) | H ≥ 136 t · L ≤ 7 t |
| 🔁 Holding speeds (normal) | 230 kt · 240 kt · 265 kt · M0.83 |
| 📅 AIRAC cycle | 28 days · issue ≥ 42 days ahead |
| 🩺 Class 1 medical validity | 12 months · 6 months at 60+ (single-pilot CAT) or 40+ |
| 🚒 RFF response time | ≤ 3 min to each runway end |
| 🔎 Serious injury | > 48 h in hospital within 7 days |
0 Definitions and Abbreviations Chapter 0
Air law is written in a precise vocabulary. Most wrong answers come from two definitions that sound alike, so learn them in pairs.
Every vertical word has a datum. Altitude is measured from mean sea level, height from a specified datum, elevation is the altitude of a point on the ground, and a flight level is a surface of constant pressure related to 1013.25 hPa.
Vertical words
Altitude
Vertical distance of a level, point or object from mean sea level. Read on QNH.
Height
Vertical distance from a specified datum, such as the aerodrome. Read on QFE.
Elevation
Vertical distance of a point on or fixed to the surface from mean sea level.
Flight level
Surface of constant atmospheric pressure related to 1013.25 hPa, separated by set pressure intervals.
Areas on the ground and in the air
Manoeuvring area
Take-off, landing and taxiing — excluding aprons.
Movement area
Manoeuvring area plus aprons.
Control zone (CTR)
Controlled airspace from the surface to a specified upper limit.
Control area (CTA)
Controlled airspace from a specified limit above the earth upwards.
Approach minima
- 🛬 DA/H — precision or vertically guided approach: start the missed approach if the required visual reference is not established.
- 📉 MDA/H — non-precision or circling approach: do not descend below it without the required visual reference.
- ⛰️ OCA/H — the lowest altitude/height used to meet obstacle clearance criteria; it is a design figure, not an operating minimum.
1 International Agreements and Organizations Chapter 1
One treaty, signed in 1944, created the international system: sovereignty over airspace, the freedoms of the air, and an organization to write common standards.
Every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory. Everything else — freedoms, standards, documents — is an agreement to share that airspace on known terms.
The organization
- 🏛️ The Assembly (all Contracting States) meets at least once every three years; the Council has 36 members and is the permanent governing body.
- 📘 Standards are things States shall do; recommended practices are desirable. A State that cannot comply with a Standard must notify its difference, which is published in its AIP (GEN 1.7).
- 📚 There are 19 Annexes — for example Annex 1 licensing, Annex 2 rules of the air, Annex 6 operations, Annex 11 ATS, Annex 13 investigation, Annex 14 aerodromes, Annex 17 security.
Freedoms of the air
| Freedom | What it allows |
|---|---|
| 1st | Fly across another State without landing |
| 2nd | Land for non-traffic purposes (fuel, repairs) |
| 3rd | Put down traffic from your own State in another |
| 4th | Take on traffic in another State for your own State |
| 5th | Carry traffic between two other States on a service to or from your own |
Other conventions to recognise
Tokyo 1963
Offences and acts committed on board; powers of the commander.
The Hague 1970
Unlawful seizure of aircraft.
Montreal 1971
Unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation (sabotage).
Warsaw 1929 / Montreal 1999
Carrier liability to passengers and for baggage and cargo.
2 Airworthiness of Aircraft Chapter 2
An aircraft may only fly when it is shown to meet its design standard and is kept in that condition.
The State of Design certifies the type; the State of Registry certifies the individual aircraft by issuing the certificate of airworthiness and deciding on its continuing airworthiness.
State of Design
Issues the type certificate after testing; runs the structural integrity and corrosion programme for aeroplanes over 5700 kg.
State of Registry
Issues the certificate of airworthiness, decides continuing airworthiness, judges damage and approves repairs, and tells the State of Design when it first registers a type.
- 📘 Annex 8 deals with airworthiness from the engineering side and Annex 6 with operational safety; Annex 8 Part III covers aeroplanes over 5700 kg with at least two engines used for international carriage.
- 🔁 A certificate of airworthiness stays valid subject to periodic inspection at intervals set by the State.
- 📕 Every aircraft has a flight manual with its approved limitations; if limiting speeds are given as Mach numbers, a Machmeter must be fitted.
3 Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks Chapter 3
An aircraft carries the nationality of the State in which it is registered, shown by marks painted on the airframe.
Nationality mark first, then the registration mark — with a hyphen when the registration mark starts with the same kind of character (letter or number) that ends the nationality mark, as in G-ABCD.
- 📻 The nationality mark comes from the radio call-sign series given to the State by the ITU; an international operating agency may use a common mark instead.
- 🚫 Combinations such as SOS, PAN, XXX, TTT, Q-code groups and five-letter signal-code groups are never used, as they could be mistaken for distress, urgency or safety signals.
- 📏 On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks go on the lower surface of the wing (at least 50 cm high) and on the fuselage or the upper half of the vertical tail (at least 30 cm high).
- 📜 The certificate of registration is carried on board at all times. Annex 7 contains Standards only, with no Recommended Practices.
4 Flight Crew Licensing and Medical Requirements Chapter 4
A licence proves what you may do; a rating says on what and in which conditions; a medical certificate says you are fit to do it now.
Never exercise a privilege you are not current for. A licence is only usable with a valid rating and a valid medical certificate, and with any decrease in medical fitness you stop flying and seek advice.
Experience for the airline transport pilot licence (aeroplanes)
| Requirement | Minimum |
|---|---|
| Total flight time in aeroplanes | 1500 h (500 h multi-pilot) |
| Pilot in command | 250 h PIC, or 500 h PIC under supervision, or 70 h PIC + the rest under supervision |
| Cross-country | 200 h (100 h as PIC or under supervision) |
| Instrument time | 75 h (≤ 30 h on the ground) |
| Night | 100 h |
| Minimum age | 21 |
Medical certificates
Class 1 — professional
Valid 12 months; 6 months from age 40 in single-pilot commercial passenger operations, and from age 60.
Class 2 — private
Valid 60 months until 40, 24 months from 40 to 50, then 12 months.
5 Rules of the Air Chapter 5
The rules of the air apply over the high seas without exception and over a State's territory as far as its own rules allow. They decide who gives way, what you must see, and what to do when the radio fails.
The less manoeuvrable aircraft has right of way. Powered heavier-than-air aircraft give way to airships, gliders and balloons; airships to gliders and balloons; gliders to balloons. Aircraft towing or carrying a load are treated as less manoeuvrable.
Right of way between powered aircraft
- ↔️ Head-on: both alter heading to the right.
- ➡️ Converging: the aircraft that has the other on its right gives way.
- ⏩ Overtaking: the overtaking aircraft keeps out of the way by turning right; overtaking is within 70° of the other's tail.
- 🛬 Landing: an aircraft landing or on final has right of way; the lower of two landing aircraft has priority, but must not cut in.
VMC minima (simplified)
| Where | Visibility | Distance from cloud |
|---|---|---|
| At and above FL100 (classes A–G) | 8 km | 1500 m H · 1000 ft V |
| Below FL100, above 3000 ft AMSL or 1000 ft above terrain | 5 km | 1500 m H · 1000 ft V |
| Class F/G at or below 3000 ft AMSL or 1000 ft above terrain | 5 km | Clear of cloud, surface in sight |
Radio failure in IMC (procedural summary)
- Squawk 7600 and keep listening; transmit blind.
- Keep the last assigned speed and level, or the minimum flight altitude if higher, for 20 minutes after failing to report at a compulsory point (7 minutes in a radar environment, from the later of the last level, the squawk or the missed report).
- Then adjust level and speed to the filed flight plan and proceed to the holding fix for the destination.
- Begin descent at, or as close as possible to, the expected approach time — or the ETA if none was given — and land within 30 minutes if possible.
Light signals from the tower
| Signal | Aircraft in flight | Aircraft on the ground |
|---|---|---|
| Steady green | Cleared to land | Cleared for take-off |
| Steady red | Give way, continue circling | Stop |
| Green flashes | Return for landing | Cleared to taxi |
| Red flashes | Aerodrome unsafe, do not land | Taxi clear of the landing area |
| White flashes | Land here when cleared | Return to the starting point |
Worked example — who gives way?
You are flying a twin-engine aeroplane. A glider is converging from your left at the same level.
The "aircraft on the right" rule only applies between aircraft of the same category. A glider is less manoeuvrable than a powered aeroplane, so you give way, even though the glider is on your left.
6 Instrument Procedures — Departures Chapter 6
A departure procedure keeps you clear of obstacles from the end of the runway until you reach a safe en-route altitude.
The standard climb gradient is 3.3%, made of a 2.5% obstacle surface plus a 0.8% margin. If an obstacle needs more, the chart publishes a higher gradient and you must be able to fly it.
- 📏 The minimum obstacle clearance is zero at the departure end of the runway (DER) and grows by 0.8% of the distance flown; straight flight is assumed until 120 m (394 ft) above the DER.
- ↩️ A straight departure has its initial track within 15° of the runway direction; turns are flown at defined speeds and bank angles.
- 🧭 Where no published track exists, an omnidirectional departure uses sectors with their own climb requirements.
7 Approach Procedures Chapter 7
An instrument approach has up to five segments, each with its own job and its own obstacle clearance.
Arrival → initial → intermediate → final → missed approach. Obstacle clearance shrinks as you descend: 300 m (984 ft) in the initial segment, reducing to 150 m through the intermediate, and less again on final.
Aircraft categories by Vat
| Category | Vat (kt) |
|---|---|
| A | below 91 |
| B | 91–120 |
| C | 121–140 |
| D | 141–165 |
| E | 166–210 |
- 🛡️ The minimum sector altitude gives at least 300 m (984 ft) obstacle clearance within 25 NM of the navigation aid, IAF or IF.
- 🔁 The missed approach climb gradient is normally 2.5%.
8 Circling Approach Chapter 8
Circling is the visual part of an instrument approach used to land on a runway not aligned with the final approach track.
Keep the runway in sight. If visual reference is lost while circling, climb towards the landing runway and into the published missed approach.
| Category | Lowest circling OCH |
|---|---|
| A | 120 m (394 ft) |
| B | 150 m (492 ft) |
| C | 180 m (591 ft) |
| D | 210 m (689 ft) |
9 Holding Procedures Chapter 9
A hold is a predetermined racetrack used to keep an aircraft in a defined piece of airspace while it waits.
Standard holds turn right, with 1-minute outbound legs up to 14 000 ft and 1½ minutes above. Joining uses three sectors — parallel, offset (teardrop) and direct — with a 5° flexibility at the boundaries.
| Level | Maximum speed (normal) |
|---|---|
| Up to 14 000 ft | 230 kt |
| Above 14 000 to 20 000 ft | 240 kt |
| Above 20 000 to 34 000 ft | 265 kt |
| Above 34 000 ft | M0.83 |
10 Altimeter Setting Procedure Chapter 10
Below the transition altitude you fly altitudes on QNH; above the transition level you fly flight levels on 1013.25 hPa.
Climbing: change to standard when passing the transition altitude. Descending: change to QNH when passing the transition level. The transition layer between them is crossed in climb or descent, never cruised in.
- 🔢 The transition level is the lowest flight level available above the transition altitude.
- 🧪 Pre-flight check on QNH: the altimeter should read the elevation of the check location within ±60 ft for a test range of 0–30 000 ft, or ±80 ft for 0–40 000 ft.
11 Parallel or Near-parallel Runway Operations Chapter 11
Two runways side by side can double capacity — but only with radar, ILS on both, and enough space between them.
Independent approaches need the most room (1035 m), dependent approaches 915 m, and departures or segregated operations 760 m.
Mode 1 — independent approaches
No radar separation between adjacent localizers; NTZ at least 610 m wide, monitored by dedicated controllers.
Mode 2 — dependent approaches
Radar separation applied — 2 NM diagonally between adjacent localizers.
Mode 3 — independent departures
Tracks diverge by at least 15° immediately after take-off.
Mode 4 — segregated
One runway for approaches only, the other for departures only.
12 SSR and ACAS Chapter 12
The transponder tells ATC who and where you are; ACAS uses the same signals to warn you about other aircraft.
Follow an RA immediately, even against an ATC instruction, then tell ATC. Never manoeuvre on a traffic advisory alone.
Traffic advisory (TA)
Look for the traffic. No manoeuvre.
Resolution advisory (RA)
Follow it promptly; report "TCAS RA"; return to the clearance when clear of conflict.
- 🔢 4096 Mode A codes (octal, 0000–7777). 2000 when no code has been assigned; 7000 for conspicuity.
- 📏 Mode C is verified when within ±300 ft of the level the pilot reports.
13 Airspace Chapter 13
All airspace lies inside a flight information region; the controlled parts of it are divided into seven classes that decide who is separated from whom.
Classes A–E are controlled, F and G are not. Moving down the alphabet, separation is given to fewer combinations of flights until, in class G, only flight information is offered.
| Class | Flights | Separation |
|---|---|---|
| A | IFR only | All flights |
| B | IFR and VFR | All flights |
| C | IFR and VFR | IFR from IFR and VFR; VFR gets traffic information on VFR |
| D | IFR and VFR | IFR from IFR; everyone else gets traffic information |
| E | IFR and VFR | IFR from IFR; VFR needs no clearance |
| F | IFR and VFR | Advisory service to participating IFR |
| G | IFR and VFR | None — flight information only |
Control zone
From the surface, at least 5 NM from the aerodrome in the approach directions.
Control area
Lower limit at least 200 m (700 ft) above ground or water.
- 🚦 250 kt IAS below FL100 applies to VFR in class C and to all flights in classes D, E, F and G.
- 🛣️ Route letters: A, B, G, R regional non-RNAV; L, M, N, P regional RNAV; H, J, V, W non-regional non-RNAV; Q, T, Y, Z non-regional RNAV. Prefix U = upper; suffix F = advisory route, G = flight information route.
- 🎯 RNP 4 means staying within 4 NM of the intended position for at least 95% of the flight time.
14 Air Traffic Services Chapter 14
Air traffic services come in three parts — control, flight information and alerting — and each has its own job.
A clearance only separates you from known traffic. It never relieves you of responsibility for the safety of the aircraft, terrain clearance or the rules of the air.
Read-back items
Route clearances; clearances to enter, land on, take off from, hold short of, cross or backtrack on a runway; runway in use; altimeter settings; SSR codes; level, heading and speed instructions; transition levels.
Emergency phases
INCERFA — uncertainty
No contact for 30 min after it was due, or 30 min overdue.
ALERFA — alert
Fails to land within 5 min of the landing time after clearance, efficiency impaired, or unlawful interference.
DETRESFA — distress
Fuel considered exhausted, forced landing likely, or grave and imminent danger.
ATIS and speed control
- 📻 ATIS is never broadcast on an ILS voice channel, should not exceed 30 seconds, and is acknowledged by quoting its letter.
- ☁️ Cloud is included when the base is below 5000 ft or the highest MSA (whichever is higher), or when CB is present.
- 🐢 Speed changes: Mach 0.01 at or above FL250, 10 kt below; not more than ±20 kt on intermediate and final approach; none inside 4 NM from the threshold.
- ⏰ ATS clocks are kept within ±30 seconds of UTC.
15 Separation Chapter 15
Separation is the minimum spacing ATC keeps between aircraft — vertical, lateral, longitudinal or by radar, plus extra for wake turbulence.
Never let one form of separation go before another is in place. The basic numbers are 1000 ft vertically, 15 minutes longitudinally, 5 NM by radar.
Track definitions
Same track
Difference less than 45° (or more than 315°).
Crossing
45°–135° or 225°–315°.
Reciprocal
More than 135° and less than 225°.
Time separation at the same level
| Situation | Minimum |
|---|---|
| Same or crossing track, basic | 15 min |
| With frequent navaid position and speed checks | 10 min |
| Same point, leader 20 kt or more faster | 5 min |
| Same point, leader 40 kt or more faster | 3 min |
| DME, same track | 20 NM · 10 NM if leader 20 kt faster |
Wake turbulence
| Leader → follower | Radar | Time (arrivals) |
|---|---|---|
| Heavy → Heavy | 4 NM | — |
| Heavy → Medium | 5 NM | 2 min |
| Heavy → Light | 6 NM | 3 min |
| Medium → Light | 5 NM | 3 min |
Departures: 2 minutes for a lighter aircraft behind a heavier one; 3 minutes when taking off from an intermediate point behind a heavier aircraft using the full length.
Worked example — Mach number technique
The leading aircraft flies M0.84 and the following one M0.80. The leader is faster by 0.04.
The rule starts at 10 minutes when the leader is equal or faster, and drops one minute for each 0.01 above 0.01 — 0.02 → 9, 0.03 → 8, 0.04 → 7 minutes, down to 5 minutes at 0.06.
16 Control of Aircraft Chapter 16
How each ATC unit actually controls traffic: procedural and radar control, radar approaches, aerodrome and approach control.
No radar service before identification, and the pilot is always told when it starts, what it is and when it ends.
PAR — precision
Azimuth and elevation to the DH; one aircraft per controller; gear check at about 3 NM; no landing clearance by 2 NM → go around.
SRA — non-precision
Advisory heights with range to the radar termination range: every 1 NM to 2 NM, every 0.5 NM to 1 NM.
- 🧭 Identification: a turn of 30° or more, a code or IDENT, a position report, or a handover.
- 🌬️ Significant wind change on final: headwind 10 kt, tailwind 2 kt, crosswind 5 kt.
- ⛽ Fuel jettison: tell ATC; not below 6000 ft; clear of towns, preferably over water, away from thunderstorms.
- 🛫 Departure spacing: 5 minutes basic, 2 minutes if the leader is 40 kt faster on the same track, 1 minute if tracks diverge by 45° immediately.
17 Aeronautical Information Service Chapter 17
Everything a crew needs to know about the ground and the airspace is published in one integrated package.
Match the publication to how long the information lasts: permanent → AIP; temporary and long or graphic → supplement; short-notice or short-term → NOTAM; advice and forecasts → AIC.
| Item | Key numbers |
|---|---|
| AIP | GEN, ENR, AD; differences in GEN 1.7; P/R/D areas in ENR 5 |
| AIRAC | Every 28 days; issued ≥ 42 days ahead (56 for major changes) |
| AIP supplement | 3 months or longer; yellow paper; checklist monthly |
| NOTAM | ≥ 24 h notice desirable; checklist at least monthly |
| SNOWTAM | Runway condition code 6 to 0 per third; valid 8 h |
| ASHTAM | Valid 24 h; red / orange / yellow / green alert colours |
| AIC | Numbered by calendar year; checklist yearly |
18 Aerodromes — Physical Characteristics Chapter 18
An aerodrome is designed around the aeroplanes that use it, through the reference code and the declared distances.
TODA adds the clearway; ASDA adds the stopway. Both start from the TORA, and the LDA is measured from the threshold.
| Code number | Reference field length | Code letter | Wing span |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | < 800 m | A | < 15 m |
| 2 | 800 – < 1200 m | B | 15 – < 24 m |
| 3 | 1200 – < 1800 m | C | 24 – < 36 m |
| 4 | ≥ 1800 m | D / E / F | 36 – < 52 · 52 – < 65 · 65 – < 80 m |
- 🟩 Strip: at least 60 m beyond the runway end (30 m for code 1 non-instrument). RESA: at least 90 m, twice the runway width.
- ✈️ Clearway: no longer than half the TORA. Stopway: as wide as the runway.
- 🚖 Rapid exit taxiway: 93 km/h for code 3/4, angle 25°–45° (preferably 30°).
- ⛔ Runway-holding position for code 3/4: 75 m (non-precision), 90 m (precision); code F precision 107.5 m.
19 Aerodromes — Visual Aids, Markings and Signs Chapter 19
Paint and signs carry instructions you cannot afford to misread — and the colours tell you what kind of instruction it is.
Red means mandatory. White on red is an instruction you must not pass without a clearance; black on yellow tells you where to go; yellow on black tells you where you are.
Mandatory sign
White on red — runway designation, CAT holding, NO ENTRY.
Information sign
Black on yellow — direction, destination, runway exit, vacated.
Location sign
Yellow on black, with a yellow border when it stands alone.
| Runway width | 18 m | 23 m | 30 m | 45 m | 60 m |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Threshold stripes | 4 | 6 | 8 | 12 | 16 |
- ⬜ Runway markings white, taxiway markings yellow.
- 🎯 Aiming point by LDA: 150 m (< 800 m), 250 m, 300 m, 400 m (≥ 2400 m).
- 🪜 Pattern A (dashed lines on the runway side) is the holding position nearest the runway; Pattern B (ladder) is a further CAT II/III holding position.
20 Aerodrome Lighting Chapter 20
At night and in low visibility the lights do the work of the paint, with colours that tell you where on the runway you are.
Green starts the runway, red ends it, yellow warns that the end is near, blue edges a taxiway.
| Lights | Colour |
|---|---|
| Threshold and wing bars | Green, towards the approach |
| Runway end | Red, towards the runway |
| Edge lights, caution zone | Yellow over the last 600 m or third |
| Centreline | White; red/white from 900 m to go; red for the last 300 m |
| Taxiway edge / centreline | Blue / green (green-yellow in ILS areas) |
| Runway guard lights | Flashing yellow |
Approach lighting is built in 300 m units: a simple system is at least 420 m long; CAT I and CAT II/III systems extend 900 m.
21 Obstacle Marking and Aerodrome Services Chapter 21
Obstacles are marked and lit so they can be seen; the rescue and fire-fighting service is sized to the aeroplanes that use the aerodrome.
The RFF objective is to save lives, and the first vehicle must be able to apply foam at half the required rate within 3 minutes at the end of any runway.
Low intensity
Fixed red on fixed objects; flashing yellow on vehicles (flashing blue for emergency vehicles).
Medium intensity
Flashing red, 20–60 per minute; objects over 45 m.
High intensity
Flashing white, 40–60 per minute, day and night; objects over 150 m.
- ❌ Closed markings: white crosses on runways, yellow on taxiways, at each end and every 300 m.
- 🚒 RFF category from aeroplane length and fuselage width; one category lower is allowed with fewer than 700 movements in the busiest three months.
22 Facilitation Chapter 22
Facilitation keeps border formalities from cancelling out the speed of air travel.
States may ask only for the documents Annex 9 lists, and should accept them electronically or hand-written as long as they are legible.
- 📝 The general declaration carries a health section and may be signed by the commander or an authorized agent.
- 👥 Crew information is limited to the number of crew on board; no list of accompanied baggage may be required.
- 🪪 A crew member certificate is an identity card, issued free for the term of employment; it allows temporary admission without passport or visa when the crew member leaves on the same or next scheduled flight.
- ⏱️ For a non-scheduled flight landing for a non-traffic stop, a flight plan received 2 hours before arrival is adequate notice.
23 Search and Rescue Chapter 23
Search and rescue runs around the clock, region by region, coordinated by a rescue coordination centre.
The first aircraft on scene takes charge until the first search and rescue aircraft arrives — unless it cannot talk to the RCC or ATS, in which case it hands over to one that can.
| Symbol | Meaning | Used by |
|---|---|---|
| V | Require assistance | Survivors |
| X | Require medical assistance | Survivors |
| N / Y | No / Yes | Survivors |
| LLL | Operation completed | Search parties |
| LL | All personnel found | Search parties |
| XX | Unable to continue, returning | Search parties |
| NN | Nothing found, will continue | Search parties |
Supplies: red medical, blue food and water, yellow blankets and clothing, black miscellaneous. Signals understood: rock the wings by day; flash the landing lights twice at night.
24 Security Chapter 24
Security protects civil aviation against unlawful interference — before the flight through screening, and during it through crew procedures and ATC support.
The safety of passengers, crew, ground staff and the public comes first. A seized aircraft that has landed is kept on the ground unless letting it go is needed to protect life.
- 🔐 Flight deck door lockable from inside only; a bomb search checklist is carried on board.
- 🧳 Baggage of a passenger not on board is not carried without extra screening; screened and unscreened passengers must not mix.
- 👮 The commander is told the number and seats of armed persons; deportees board first.
- 📡 Squawk 7500; ATC does not mention it unless the crew does, and transmits without expecting a reply.
- 🅿️ Isolated parking position at least 100 m from other stands and buildings.
25 Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Chapter 25
An investigation exists for one reason: to stop the next accident. It is never about blame.
An accident and a serious incident differ only in the result. The State of Occurrence investigates; over the high seas the State of Registry does.
Accident
Fatal or serious injury, substantial damage needing major repair, or the aircraft is missing.
Serious incident
An accident nearly happened — near collisions, engine fire, crew incapacitation, runway excursion.
Incident
Anything else that affects or could affect safety.
- 🏥 Serious injury: more than 48 hours in hospital starting within 7 days, most fractures, second- or third-degree burns, burns over 5% of the body.
- 📨 The Organization is notified for aircraft over 2250 kg and receives the final report for aircraft over 5700 kg.
- 🇪🇺 Under European rules a permanent independent body investigates, and reports should be public within 12 months.