01 Limitations Limitations

This section is "the law" — the numbers you don't negotiate with. Everything here comes from Chapter 2 of the AFM, and it's an EASA approved chapter, meaning none of it is judgment call, it's just execution.

The speeds that matter (V-Speeds) AFM 2.2

Four speeds you should know cold. Notice that vA (maneuvering speed) isn't a fixed number — it changes with the aircraft's mass, because it's built on how much maneuvering load the airframe can take at a given weight.

Engine limits AFM 2.4

Pay close attention here: the manual covers two different engines — TAE 125-01 and TAE 125-02-99 (fitted if modification MÄM 40-256 has been carried out). Some figures change between the two, and this is exactly the point where you need to know which engine your actual airplane has.

The figures that don't change between the two engines — and these are just as worth memorizing:

Engine instrument markings AFM 2.5

Worth a pause: on the TAE 125-02-99 engine (with the new AED/CED), the RPM gauge has no yellow range at all — it goes straight from green (0 to 2300 RPM) to red above 2300. The TAE 125-01 engine, on the other hand, has a yellow band from 2400 to 2500 RPM before red. If you're asked "where's the yellow band on the -02-99?" — the answer is: there isn't one.

Mass and center of gravity AFM 2.7, 2.8

Center of gravity isn't one fixed number — it's an allowed "zone" that moves with mass. A simple chart is clearer than a paragraph of text:

Approved maneuvers and load factors AFM 2.9, 2.10

Altitude and crew AFM 2.11, 2.12

Kinds of operation and fuel AFM 2.13, 2.14

Approved: VFR, Night VFR, and IFR. Absolutely prohibited: flight into known or forecast icing conditions, and flight into known thunderstorms.

Max permitted quantity difference between the two tanks (Long Range): 9 US gal (~34 liters). And watch out: the quantity gauge "freezes" at 15 gal even if there's actually 19.5 in there — you have to use the alternate measuring device or assume 15 for planning purposes only.

Other limits worth memorizing AFM 2.16

• The canopy and passenger door must never be locked with the key during operation — they must stay openable from outside at any moment.
• Smoking on the airplane is prohibited entirely.
• If the seal on the EMERGENCY switch is broken, or the ECU BACKUP UNSAFE light comes on, IFR flights are prohibited.

And if the KAP 140 autopilot system is installed: max operating speed 165 KIAS, min speed 70 KIAS, min operating altitude 800 ft AGL (cruise/climb/descent/maneuvering) or 200 ft AGL on final approach only. It must be switched off during take-off and landing.

02 Emergency Procedures Emergency Procedures

The golden rule is written word-for-word at the top of the chapter: "fly the aircraft first." Before you try to solve any problem, take control of the flight attitude and think about a place to make an emergency landing. The manual also asks you to think ahead — before the flight — about where you'd land if something happened at each phase of flight, so you're never shocked and can act calmly and decisively.

Basic emergency speeds AFM 3.1.2

This is the table that keeps coming back in almost every emergency scenario — just memorize it at max mass (1150 kg):

Engine problems AFM 3.2

On the ground: if oil pressure is in the red range — shut down the engine immediately, no debate.

During take-off: if there's enough distance to stop — power lever to IDLE and land straight ahead. If you can no longer stop and haven't reached a safe height yet —

In flight (engine running roughly or lost power): Power lever MAX, open Alternate Air if there's icing, check MAIN tank quantity, turn on the transfer pump, confirm the emergency fuel valve is on NORMAL, and switch to ECU B. If that doesn't fix it, switch back to AUTOMATIC. If the power loss continues — do an ECU reset by cycling ENGINE MASTER OFF then ON.

Restarting the engine in flight AFM 3.2.4, 3.2.5

Defective RPM regulating system AFM 3.2.6

• Governor failure: adjust RPM manually with the power lever, and try not to exceed 2500 RPM.
• Overspeed: reduce power to not exceed 2300 RPM. If you need a stronger climb, up to 2500 RPM is permitted for a maximum of 10 minutes only.
• Underspeed: RPM can drop to 1400 or below — meaning no climb or go-around power. Land as soon as possible.

Fuel transfer pump failure AFM 3.2.7

The emergency fuel valve's EMERG. TRANSFER position moves fuel at an approximate rate of 18 to 21 US gal/hr (70-80 liters/hr) — much slower than the normal electric transfer pump.

Smoke and fire AFM 3.3

The general pattern across all scenarios (ground / take-off / in flight): emergency fuel valve OFF, transfer pump OFF, ENGINE MASTER OFF, ELECTRIC MASTER OFF, then open the canopy and evacuate the aircraft as soon as it stops. If it's an electrical fire specifically in flight: switch the EMERGENCY switch ON (if installed) before turning off ELECTRIC MASTER — that way the backup battery keeps feeding the attitude gyro and the flood light.

Gliding AFM 3.4

The better figure (10.3) is more theoretical — it may not actually be achievable while maintaining a safe airspeed.

Emergency landing AFM 3.5

• Engine off: touch down at the lowest possible airspeed.
• Defective tire: land at the edge of the runway on the side of the good tire, and hold that wing low — that way any swerve expected during rollout gets corrected within the runway.
• Defective brakes: landing on grass is better — the higher rolling resistance shortens the stopping distance.

Recovering from an unintentional spin AFM 3.6

Other emergencies AFM 3.7

Icing

Pitot heat ON, cabin heat ON, air distribution lever to DEFROST, increase power (to prevent ice building up on the propeller blades), and open Alternate Air.

If Pitot heat fails: open the Alternate Static valve and close the emergency windows.

Electrical system failures

• Complete failure: check circuit breakers, switch ESSENTIAL BUS ON. If there's still no power, switch the EMERGENCY switch ON.
• Starter malfunction (won't disengage): Power lever IDLE, ENGINE MASTER OFF, ELECTRIC MASTER OFF — and terminate flight preparation entirely.
• Voltage in the red range (above 15.5V or below 11V): ESSENTIAL BUS ON, land at the nearest suitable airfield.
• An alternator failure leaves the batteries as the last source — good for at least 30 minutes.

Suspicion of carbon monoxide contamination

Cabin heat OFF, open ventilation and emergency windows, reduce speed below 120 KIAS, and unlatch the front canopy to the "Cooling Gap" position. (120 KIAS is actually the max demonstrated speed for opening the canopy in flight at all — don't exceed it.)

DOOR light illuminated

Reduce speed immediately and visually confirm the canopy and rear door. If either one isn't locked: keep speed below 140 KIAS and land at the nearest suitable airfield.

03 Normal Procedures Normal Procedures

This section walks you from the pre-flight inspection all the way to engine shutdown — every normal flight, step by step. Focus on the numbers that keep coming up in every practical lesson.

Normal operating speeds AFM 4A.2

Pre-flight inspection — points not to forget AFM 4A.3.1

• Fuel Cooler Baffle: remove it if ground temperature is above 20°C, install it if below 20°C.
• Drain both tank sumps to check for water and sediment — until clean fuel comes out.

Starting and warm-up AFM 4A.3.3

Before taxi and before take-off AFM 4A.3.4, 4A.3.6

The ECU TEST is a mandatory part of the before take-off check — it automatically switches between ECU A and ECU B, and you watch the caution lights blink then go out. Any fault during the test = stop flight preparation, even if the engine runs fine afterward.

Climb AFM 4A.3.8

The engine manufacturer's recommended cruise power setting: 70%.

Fuel transfer and landing AFM 4A.3.10 – 4A.3.13

• The normal (electric) transfer pump moves fuel at an approximate rate of 60 US gal/hr, much faster than the emergency valve.
• On approach: slow to 108 KIAS before selecting T/O flaps, and to 91 KIAS before selecting LDG flaps.
• During descent: below 5000 ft, power as required; above 5000 ft, don't go below 30% — to avoid an unrecognized flame-out below -10°C OAT.

Engine shutdown AFM 4A.3.15

After landing, check the ELT by listening on 121.5 MHz. And before refueling, the aircraft must be connected to an electrical ground point at the unpainted areas on the steps.

04 Abnormal Procedures Abnormal Procedures

The difference from the Emergency section: things here are "lighter" — a gauge out of the green, a caution light on — not necessarily "land right now," but you still need to know exactly what the correct step is.

Indications outside the green range AFM 4B.2

Electrical faults on the annunciator panel AFM 4B.3

• LOW VOLTS: normal voltage is 14V, and the caution activates below 12.6V. Possible causes: a fault in the supply, or RPM too low.
• ECU A / ECU B: press the ECU TEST button for more than two seconds to reset. If it returns or won't reset — land at the nearest suitable airfield, and the engine has to be inspected afterward either way.
• PITOT: if it happens after prolonged ground operation — normal, this is a thermal switch protecting against overheating, and it re-activates on its own after a cooling period.
• LOW FUEL: comes on when usable fuel in MAIN drops below approximately 3 US gal (+2/-1).

Faults on the AED 125 display AFM 4B.4

• GENERATOR (high electrical load): most likely a wiring or equipment fault — turn off anything non-essential.
• High VOLT: land at the nearest suitable airfield. (And the ENGINE light might come on during ground warm-up due to a normal higher voltage reading on a cold engine — not a real fault.)

Take-off from a short grass strip AFM 4B.5

Brakes applied, T/O flaps, Power lever MAX, control stick fully back, then release the brakes. Ease the stick forward gradually after the nose wheel lifts.

Flap system failures AFM 4B.6

If only UP or only T/O is available: fly a flat approach, and control speed and rate of descent with the power lever. If only LDG is available: perform a normal landing.

Landing at a high landing mass AFM 4B.7

For aircraft whose max landing mass is 1092 kg — landing between 1092 and 1150 kg counts as an abnormal procedure, at an approach speed of 71 KIAS.

05 Powerplant Powerplant

This isn't a regular carbureted gasoline engine — it's a real diesel, four-stroke, common-rail direct injection, liquid-cooled, with a turbo and an intercooler. And the most important part: it has two electronic control units (ECU A and ECU B) that handle everything for you — you just move the power lever, and they take care of the rest.

Engine overview AFM 7.9.1

Controls AFM 7.9.2

• Power lever: doesn't directly control fuel or manifold pressure — it just sets the requested power percentage (LOAD %), and the ECU translates that into manifold pressure, injection quantity and propeller speed.
• ELECTRIC MASTER: three positions — OFF / ON / START.
• ENGINE MASTER: must be ON for you to crank the engine at all.
• ECU SWAP: normally set to AUTOMATIC — the engine is controlled by ECU A, and it switches to ECU B automatically on a failure.
• ALTERNATE AIR: normally closed (lever forward). Pull it back if the air filter is blocked or icing occurs — it draws air from the engine compartment instead.

ECU TEST button — two jobs in one AFM 7.9.2

What happens when you press it depends on the power lever position:

• Power lever at IDLE and RPM below ~900: starts the full ECU self-test — it switches from A to B and back while the propeller cycles, and you watch the lights blink then go out.
• Power lever above IDLE: it becomes just a "reset" button for an ECU A or ECU B caution — once only, and only for minor faults.
• IFR aircraft: the same button also tests the ECU Backup Battery — if its charge is below 70% of rated capacity, the ECU BACKUP UNSAFE light stays on continuously.

Engine instruments (CED / AED) AFM 7.9.4

Cooling and turbo AFM 7.9.6, 7.9.7

The cooling system has a radiator and a bypass — the bypass operates while the engine is cold (speeds up warm-up), and once temperature reaches roughly 80°C, a thermostat valve activates the radiator. There's also a separate heat exchanger for cabin heating, which operates regardless of coolant temperature, plus an expansion tank with an overpressure relief valve.

The turbo: exhaust spins the turbine, and any excess bypasses it through the waste gate valve, controlled by the ECU based on a pressure sensor reading behind the compressor — this prevents excess manifold pressure at low altitudes. Compressed air is cooled in the intercooler before entering the engine — colder air is denser, which means more power.

Two oil systems, not one AFM 7.9.8

• Engine and turbo lubrication: a standard wet sump system, with a separate cooler under the engine. Checked with a dipstick through an opening in the upper cowling.
• Gearbox and propeller governor: a completely separate oil circuit, checked through an inspection glass at the front lower cowling.

ECU A and ECU B — how the dual redundancy works AFM 7.10.2

The ECU monitors everything about the engine — oil temperature and pressure, coolant and gearbox temperature, camshaft and crankshaft speed (each sensor doubled for safety), common rail fuel pressure, manifold pressure and temperature, and even power lever position (also doubled). Based on all that it controls the starter, the propeller governor valve, the rail pressure valve, the four injection nozzles, the glow plugs, and the waste gate valve.

06 Fuel System Fuel System

How the system works AFM 7.9.5

Injection is direct and high-pressure into the cylinders — one injector per cylinder, all fed from the common rail. Rail pressure is produced by a high-pressure pump, itself fed by a low-pressure pump — both mechanical, driven directly by the engine.

Fuel that isn't injected (and on a diesel engine that's a much larger quantity than what's actually burned) returns through the AUX tank back to MAIN — that way the hot fuel coming back from the rail cools down, and cold fuel in both tanks warms up a bit. Rail pressure itself is controlled by an electrical valve, using the return line's flow rate as its reference.

The tanks AFM 7.9.5

• MAIN (left): an aluminum chamber plus a filler tube connected by a flexible hose. It has two vents: one with a check valve and capillary that lets air in and stops fuel from escaping, and a second with a pressure relief valve set at 150 mbar (2 psi) — this protects the tank against overfilling if a transfer fails.
• AUX (right): same idea, but both vents include a capillary (one paired with a check valve, the second purely as an extra safety measure).
• A coarse (finger) filter sits before each tank's outlet, and a drain valve sits at the lowest point of each tank — for checking water and sediment.
• Gascolator: at the lowest point of the whole fuel system, centrally under the fuselage, roughly 30 cm ahead of the wing leading edge — with its own drain valve.

Long Range Tank AFM 7.9.5

Adds an extra tank chamber of roughly 5 US gal (19 liters) in place of the standard filler tube. Usable capacity works out to 19.5 US gal per side, but the gauge itself can't display more than 15 US gal — above that, the reading stays "stuck" at 15 even if there's actually more in there.

Fuel temperature AFM 7.9.5

If you're running Jet Fuel only (not diesel or a blend), operating in the yellow range is perfectly permitted.

Approved fuel grades AFM 2.14

JET A-1, JET A, JP-8, JET Fuel No. 3 (China), TS-1 (only if MÄM 40-256 has been carried out), and Diesel Fuel (EN590) — and blends of any of these grades are permitted. One single exception: Indonesia and Malaysia don't allow diesel fuel at all.

Fuel cooler AFM 7.9.5

Installed in the right wing (between the spars), drawing cooling air from an opening on the lower surface, closed off by a baffle — remove it if ground temperature is above 20°C, install it if below.

Alternate fuel quantity measuring device AFM 7.9.5

Works on the "communicating vessels" principle — you seat it against the stall strip on the wing leading edge, connect it to the tank drain, and read the quantity off the rising tube. The aircraft must be on level ground for an accurate reading, and its normal home is a bag behind the pilot seat.

07 Electrical System Electrical System

A 12-volt DC system, but with four different batteries — not just one — each with a specific job. Once you understand who feeds whom, the whole annunciator panel stops being a list you memorize and starts making sense.

Generation and storage — the four batteries AFM 7.10.1

The alternator's output connects to the battery bus through a 100A fuse. The main battery connects directly to the hot battery bus through a 50A fuse (fixed, never disconnects), and connects to the battery bus through the "battery relay," which is controlled by the ELECTRIC MASTER switch.

Distribution — seven "buses" AFM 7.10.1

The short version: Hot Battery Bus is always live, feeding just the map/reading light and the accessory socket. Battery Bus is the hub — from it, ECU Bus (the engine) and Main Bus (everything else) both get fed. If the alternator fails, you switch the ESSENTIAL BUS switch ON, which separates Main Bus and ties Essential Bus directly to the battery — guaranteeing power for the essential equipment only, for a limited time.

Gauges AFM 7.10.1

• Voltmeter: shows ECU Bus voltage — which under normal conditions is the alternator voltage. It's normal for it to be in the upper yellow range for the first 10 minutes of engine operation; if it stays yellow for longer than a minute, the ENGINE caution light comes on (on the conventional panel).
• Ammeter: shows the current the alternator is supplying to the system.

Annunciator panel — the thirteen lights AFM 2.6, 7.10.3

Every light has one color and one cause. Red = Warning (continuous tone + double red blink). Amber = Caution (momentary tone + double amber blink). White = Status (no sound, just information).

The annunciator panel check starts automatically when you switch ELECTRIC MASTER on — every light blinks, sound is muted, and pressing the Acknowledge button turns them off and sounds a brief tone. You can also run an extra self-test by holding that same button for two seconds.

Pitot heat AFM 7.10.1

Double protection: a thermal switch keeps the temperature steady, plus an extra thermal fuse as a last line of defense. If that fuse blows, Pitot heat will never turn back on until it's serviced — the aircraft needs maintenance.

08 Propeller Propeller

A short section because the information about it is compact — but every word in it gets asked about one way or another.

The blades themselves are wood-composite with a fiber-reinforced plastic coating and a stainless steel edge — near the hub there's an additional adhesive PU foil layer on the leading edge. The goal: lowest possible weight with minimal vibration.

Blade pitch isn't something the pilot controls directly — it's part of the engine control system, and the ECU adjusts it automatically based on the requested power setting.

09 Flight Controls Flight Controls

The core idea: ailerons, elevator and flaps are all worked by rigid control rods — the rudder is the only one worked by cables. Remember that distinction, because it gets asked in more than one form.

Ailerons AFM 7.3

GFRP/CFRP sandwich construction, 4 hinges per aileron — each hinge pin sits in an aluminum bracket and is secured by a roll pin. Lose that roll pin, and the hinge pin itself can be lost — a real loss of flight safety, not just a maintenance note.

Flaps AFM 7.3

A torsion tube in the fuselage is what connects the left flap to the right. The Cruise position is at the top of the switch. UP and LDG are additionally protected by a limit switch that prevents overrunning the end of travel.

Flap position indicator: 3 lights next to the selector switch — the upper green light = Cruise/UP, the middle white light = T/O, the lower white light = LDG. If two lights are on together, the flaps are still traveling between two positions.

Elevator and rudder AFM 7.3

Elevator trim AFM 7.3

A black wheel on the center console, right behind the power lever, with a friction device to prevent over-rotation and a mark showing the T/O position. Turn it forward = nose down, turn it back = nose up.

Pedal adjustment AFM 7.3

10 Airframe Airframe

Everything "physical" about the aircraft — from the outer structure down to the Pitot-Static system — is in this section. Not one system, but a collection of parts you need to know the basic description of, and where to find them.

Basic structure AFM 7.2

Instrument panel AFM 7.4

The manual describes only two example variants — VFR and IFR — even though many instrument panel versions can actually be fitted. Front ventilation comes from adjustable nozzles in the panel itself, plus spherical nozzles in the roll bar next to the front seats and on the center console above the passengers' heads.

Landing gear and brakes AFM 7.5

Fixed (non-retractable) landing gear — sprung steel main gear struts, and a free-castering nose wheel sprung by an elastomer package. Brakes are hydraulic disk brakes, operated by independent toe pedals.

Parking brake: a lever on the small center console under the instrument panel, in the upper position when released. Pull it down until it catches — pressure is built up beforehand by pumping the toe brake pedals repeatedly.

Seats and baggage compartment AFM 7.6, 7.7

The seats are a carbon fiber/Kevlar hybrid material with GFRP, and include energy-absorbing foam elements — for improved passive safety. The baggage compartment is behind the rear seat backs, and no bag may be loaded without a baggage net fitted.

Canopy and rear door AFM 7.8

• The front canopy has two locking positions — fully closed, or "Cooling Gap" (a ventilation gap, ground use only, prohibited for take-off).
• The rear door has a gas pressure damper that stops it dropping suddenly (though it must be held in strong wind), plus an extra lever protecting against unintentional opening.
• The key lock on either one must never be used before flight, so the aircraft stays openable from outside in an emergency.

Heating and ventilation: two levers on the small center console — the left one, up = heat on, down = heat off. The center one (air distribution), up = DEFROST (toward the canopy), down = FLOOR (toward the floor).

Pitot-Static system and stall warning AFM 7.11, 7.12

Total pressure is measured at the leading edge of a Pitot probe under the left wing, and static pressure from two orifices on the same probe. If it fails, the Alternate Static valve lets you use cabin static pressure as a backup source.

Stall warning is a horn, activated by suction from an orifice on the left wing leading edge (marked with a red ring) at roughly 10 down to a minimum of 5 knots above stall speed — it gets louder the closer you get to the critical speed.

Avionics AFM 7.13

A push-to-talk (PTT) button sits on each control stick, with jacks for up to 4 headsets between the front seats.